By Claude Lewenz
Housing prices are collapsing. The price of gasoline at the pump is skyrocketing. Soon the price of everything based on oil will skyrocket. The value of the US dollar is plummeting. Jobless rate hits a 22 year high. Meanwhile the son of the US Senator who sponsored the landmark, $10 billion Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956 (sponsored by Senator Al Gore Sr.) tells us that we face environmental catastrophe if we don’t curb greenhouse gasses caused in part by building and using the highways his father funded.
How did we get into this mess? Any chance these things are related? And, once we understand the answer to those questions, how can we get out of it and point instead to where we would rather be heading?
To answer, we need to go back to the Great Depression of the 1930’s, when millions of Americans found themselves living a life of poverty, hunger and despair. It lasted long enough to traumatize a generation, and it only ended when America went to war. Suddenly, everyone had a job – GI Joe in uniform or Rosie the Riveter back home. Unlike earlier wars in which soldiers went to the front by foot, horse or train, World War II was won using jeeps, tanks, trucks and planes all of which ran on hi-octane gasoline. The lead that won the war was not in bullets, but in the additive that increased octane… tetraethyl lead. The company that owned the patent on the additive was Ethyl Gasoline Corporation, jointly owned by Standard Oil (now Exxon), General Motors and DuPont (that owned 37% of GM).
Toward the end of WW-II, President Truman and General Eisenhower contemplated America’s future when the war contracts would dry up at the same time millions of soldiers would return home, looking for jobs. If they did nothing, the booming wartime economy would collapse and the Great Depression would return with a vengeance. What should they do? In 1945, Truman said "If we can put this tremendous machine of ours, which has made the victory possible, to work for peace, we can look forward to the greatest age in the history of mankind. That is what we propose to do.” Truman’s tremendous machine was based on controlling the fuel supply. Indeed one reason the Germans and Japanese lost the war was because they ran out of fuel.
Both Eisenhower (The Man who Changed America) and Truman (The Man who Loved Roads) were car enthusiasts. They turned to the nation’s business leaders for advice, some of whom were personal friends. Alfred Sloan, (Inventor of the modern corporation, who took over from Pierre S. du Pont as chairman of General Motors), gave the eulogy at Eisenhower’s funeral. Francis DuPont (Pierre’s cousin) became Eisenhower’s Commissioner of Public Roads in 1953. [Note: these hyperlinks are worth reading, check them out!] Citing the biblical injunction to beat swords into ploughshares, these leaders proposed reinventing how people live by switching from making wartime jeeps, tanks and trucks to peacetime cars, bulldozers and trucks to replace trains. In short, suburbs were invented to sell high-octane, gasoline-powered cars.
It was a different era, a time when men remembered walking from town to town looking for work. To return home and get to drive to work on those same road in a car was great. Cars are fun. “What’s good for General Motors is good for America” was more than a canny business slogan; it was a fundamental tenet of post-war America’s belief system.
GM made the cars, Standard Oil made the gasoline and DuPont made the chemicals that transformed America. However, it was the government – both federal and local, that made the rules. In making the rules, they set in motion Truman’s “greatest age in the history of mankind”, while overlooking a host of unanticipated negative side effects that are now beginning to bite back.
Without government legislation, returning servicemen would have returned home to the cities and towns where they would have lived in an apartment or a large home with lots of bedrooms for aunts and uncles, brothers and sisters in an extended family dwelling. Instead, the Federal government funded the GI Bill of Rights, to enable servicemen to buy a new home of their own, and it passed the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1944 to enable them to get there. That highway act was the first of many highway bills.
It took another decade to get the momentum up to speed, and 1955 is when the Federal Government made its big move. The names are remarkably familiar. In the Senate, the sponsor of the landmark bill, the $10 billion Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956 was none other than Democratic Senator Albert Gore, Sr., chairman of the Senate Subcommittee on Roads and father of Vice President Al Gore, now better known for his documentary An Inconvenient Truth. The prime Republican Senator who supported the bill was Senator Prescott Bush of Greenwich CT (see photo with President Eisenhower), whose son George H.W. Bush had moved to Houston get into the oil business.
Recently, on May 22, 2008, the Sante Fe New Mexican (“the oldest newspaper west of the Mississippi”) ran a letter written by Stewart Udall, 88, in which he wrote "As a freshman congressman in 1955, I regrettably voted with my unanimous colleagues for the Interstate Highway Program. All of us acted on the shortsighted assumption that cheap oil was superabundant and would always be available. This illusion began to unravel in the 1970s, and it haunts Americans today.
Oil lies at the epicenter of a critical energy crisis. Petroleum is a finite resource and is the most precious, versatile resource on the planet. Cheap oil played a crucial role in the development of American power and prosperity, and sustains the military machine that dominates the world today. Oil is now nearing a historic transition that will alter the civilization Americans have come to take for granted."
This letter is a bombshell, and it is astounding that it has not circulated the globe and hit every inbox of those concerned about where the world is heading. In effect, a witness and decision-maker of the time admits one of the greatest strategic errors committed in history, and admits it at a time when that error is becoming evident to all. We have built a global infrastructure, one that affects the ordinary families of first world countries, that it turns out was founded on a shortsighted and erroneous assumption.
None of these men were villains. They were doing what they believed was in the best interest of their country, their institutions and companies, and themselves. The villainy came later, when some of their successors dropped country and humanity as considerations, and began to use their might to preserve the short-sighted interests of themselves and their institutions at a time when it became apparent the world they would leave to future generations would be a world looted: less safe and less enriched because of their decisions and actions.
Above, I mentioned two key pieces of legislation – the Highway-Aid bills and the GI Bill of Rights. They are connected. When a freeway is built, within a few years nearby farmland is converted to suburban development. Local developers become millionaires by buying up empty land, securing local government approval to rezone so they can subdivide it and sell homes that would be worthless without good roads, affordable cars and cheap gasoline.
The freeways were the trigger, but the real economic stimulus came by building the suburbs. The primary governmental instrument was a 1930's police power intended to protect public health, safety and welfare called zoning law. In the 1950’s zoning became a world changing device to usher in Truman’s vision for the greatest age in the history of mankind.
In these new zones, only homes were allowed. The first was created in 1947 in Hempstead Long Island on what was a potato field. The first new American suburb, Levittown was born. William Levitt invented the new American suburb and local government zoning became its enabler. The song "Little boxes on the hillside, Little boxes made of ticky-tacky,
Little boxes, all the same" lampooned the model developed by Levitt, but they were a fantastic success that fuelled the fifty year economic boom. It appears that age is now ending, due to the shortsighted assumption that cheap oil was superabundant and would always be available.
Initially, occupants of those suburban homes shopped on Main Street and worked in old-style factories. Many commuted to offices in the downtown cities where the business of America still ran. But gradually, the towns and cities were abandoned as local governments began to provide zones for huge shopping malls, office parks with big glass-block buildings and industrial parks. Then came the Walmart phenomena, where goods were purchased from low wage countries and sold at a price that effectively killed off Main Street and domestic manufacturing. America outsourced its industrial capacity, moving manufacturing overseas, relying on cheap bulk oil to run container ships from Asia. At the same time, America’s farms were told by the US Department of Agriculture – get big or get out. American farming became dependent on cheap oil and food became as bland as the suburbs.
While the suburban life was sold to America as a utopia, the perfect, planned community (and then exported to the world) this was not the full picture. The suburbs are not kind to old people. It is interesting to note how the language changed. Before, old people were called Elders, and children were told “respect your elders”. In the suburbs, old people became senior citizens, people past their use-by-date. Instead of being kept in the community, senior citizens are segregated into retirement homes, and when infirm, sent to nursing homes where they must endure dislocation, loss of privacy, dignity and their sense of self-worth. Youth lost the connection to their past.
Before suburbia, adults were called Citizens, and they prided themselves in being well informed participants in the greatest democracy the world had every seen. With this new historic age of suburbs, they were rebranded Consumers, and what was once called the Fourth Estate, the journalists, became part of a consolidated business based on advertising revenue. Mainstream journalists who wanted a paycheck had to stop writing citizen’s stories and shift to writing consumer stories and dressed-up gossip.
This new suburban age was not good for children either. Where children used to have many role models and a great deal of freedom, they now saw only one non-commuting parents (or more recently day care providers), teachers and fantasy adults as portrayed on television and more recently videos and the internet. “Go outside and play” became a dangerous activity; the streets were no longer safe. Life in the suburbs without TV, video and now internet would be very difficult because frankly there is so little to do… except substance abuse and other unhealthy pursuits.
Of course, Al Gore gives us An Inconvenient Truth as another unanticipated negative side effect and as elder statesman Stewart Udall reminds us, Petroleum is a finite resource and is the most precious, versatile resource on the planet… one we continue to burn at an insanely wasteful rate.
But beyond all these awfuls, and many more that others will cite, the failing of the suburban age is in quality of life. Every place is beginning to look and feel like everywhere else; in England they call them clone towns. It’s not only food that is losing its flavor; the character and authenticity that made each place different and in its own way wonderful gives way to a pretentious banality in which the physical environment is intentionally engineered to engender predictable consumer behaviour. Where once traditions were based on the passing of the seasons, they are now based on the decorations that go up in the malls and the catalogs we get in the mail. But enough of the rant; if cheap oil is a thing of the past, change will come. We can either suffer it, or realise it as a great opportunity.
What oil has given our civilization is perhaps the most democratic level of wealth ever seen in known human history. It is the most versatile resource on the planet, and at this time, it can provide us with the bridge we need to go beyond an oil saturated world. In the short term, we need to conserve… to be conservative and to rein in our wasteful extravagances so that we may make the transition. Long term, we need to shift our energy systems to the one source that is known to always be available. We are told that the energy stored in all the coal, oil and gas remaining in the earth’s crust is equal to the solar energy striking earth in 20 days. It’s interesting to note that in a recent Scientific America article, the price put on shifting American energy use from fossil fuel to solar energy put a number of $420 billion in subsidies. If we convert the ten billion highway 1956 dollars to its equivalent in 2008, this would be close to Sen. Gore’s Federal-Aid Highway Act 1956. For those who don’t like the War in Iraq, had the funds been spent on research and development in solar energy, Scientific American’s number was reached earlier this year.
However, this article is not about the energy question. It is about how we invented modern forms of habitation based on cheap oil, and how we can view the end of cheap oil as an opportunity rather than a disaster.
In simple terms, it is time to stop building new developments that are based on the shortsighted assumption that cheap oil would be abundant and would always be available. It makes absolutely no sense to build another suburb, another shopping mall or another office or industrial park where people must drive distances to get there.
Recently, a book I wrote, How to Build a Village, was published. It came out just as the suburban housing bubble was about the burst, as gasoline prices began to skyrocket, and as the message of global warming was being taken on board by mainstream corporations and governments. But it was not written in response to those things. During the 25 years of research that precluded the book’s publication, I found people, many people were very dissatisfied with the choices available to them… suburban sprawl, downtown apartment or a small town dying when the big box mall opens up. Some of course could escape to their 50 acres in the country, or move overseas where things still were enriched, but most felt they were stuck.
Gradually, a picture began to form of how people envisioned a wonderful place to live, and surprisingly, the same patterns recurred over and over again. Of course, this is not so surprising, as in the literature, Christopher Alexander had written a book that set this out: A Pattern Language. What was most interesting was the extent to which this cut across political, economic, social and religious affiliations. A large number of people wanted to live in what they called a real community. They wanted to live near other people; provided the balance of public and private space was inherent in the design (especially sound space meaning private places where one would not hear or be heard by the neighbours). They wanted a place where children could play in safety, outdoors, where people knew each other well enough that all children were looked after by the whole community. Avoiding boredom was a big issue; the place needed to be culturally and socially enriched; it needed to have a diverse architecture, where one could walk from one end of the community to the other in ten minutes, but if one took a labyrinth walk it could take hours. It needed to have many neighborhoods and each one to have its own distinct character, some based on style, and others based on ethnic flavor. A continual theme was that it be human scaled, not dominated by cars… indeed many who had traveled overseas told me of towns and villages in Italy or Greece that I must visit in order to understand what they meant. They spoke of how in those places people took care of their own… especially taking care of the elders and neighbors who suffered misfortune.
So the primary purpose of the book was to weave all those findings into a coherent plan that a developer, a local government, or the future residents themselves could use to create such a community. Some of the challenges it addressed included how to achieve critical mass to support a thriving local economy; how to secure authenticity and character when one does not have hundreds of years for this to naturally evolve. And, as the patterns emerged, it became apparent that many of the oil-saturated suburban models currently in use simply did not fit. The term Village emerged as people spoke of villages as places people love. Since the book’s publication, the term parallel village evolved to distinguish this particular concept.
The environmental aspect of the parallel village was included, not in pursuit of carbon-free, but because using less fossil fuel lowers the cost of living while raising the quality of life. For example, if home, work, shopping, schooling and recreation are all within a ten-minute walk, then cars are not needed inside the village walls. Eliminate the cars and the roads can be narrower and cost less to build and maintain. Private homes no longer need a big driveway and a garage, leaving more money for nice parts of the home, or having it cost less. Residents need to earn less money, since they no longer pay for the purchasing, insuring and operating of the car. Sure, if they want a car, they can rent or buy a parking space in the Village motorpool, just outside the village gate, but most will probably rent a car from the motorpool on the less frequent time they need it. In local areas cars are noisy, dangerous, emit pollutants that cause ill health, create congestion and parking problems and cost a great deal of money. By eliminating them within the Village walls, quality of life improves. If 5,000 to 10,000 people live in the parallel village, their need to drive ceases. This has the positive side effect of zero carbon and zero drain on the remaining petroleum reserves.
As elder statesman Udall wrote “Oil is now nearing a historic transition that will alter the civilization Americans have come to take for granted” but it is important that we view this transition as an opportunity to create a far more engaging, wonderful, delightful place and way to live. Let us not respond in fear, but with enthusiasm. The defenders of the failed systems are no longer there; they too are looking for answers. We can look forward to the greatest age in the history of humankind, and that is what I propose we, all of us, do.









